SB 


C45S8 


S~B4-Ol 


Giltare  in  tf)e 
United  States. 

BY  E.  A.  STERLING. 


CONTINENTAL    EUROPE,    by   reason    of  its   long-established  civilization, 
density  of  population,  and  development  of  its  natural  resources,  is  able   to 
teach  a  much  needed   lesson  in  conservation  to  the  wasteful  young  nations, 
among  which  the  United  States  is  a  fair  sample.     Especially  in  the  development  of 
the  various  branches  of  forestry,  most  of  the  old  world  countries  have  taken  marked 
precedence   over   us;    and   everywhere  abroad   a   more   complete    utilization   of    all 
major  and   minor  forest  products  is  found,  together  with  a  more  careful  provision 
for  the  future  needs  of  the  people,  than  in  this  country. 

G)estrmt  Caltare  Abroad. 

As  it  is  the  chestnut  with  which  we  are  now  concerned  we  must  look  to  Italy, 
Spain,  and  parts  of  France  for  our  lesson,  as  there  will  be  found  the  highest  devel- 
opment of  this  branch  of  forestry,  or  horticulture,  whichever  it  deserves  to  be 
called. 

In  Italy  the  chestnut  has  long  been  of  great  commercial  value,  ranking  in  many 
parts  with  the  grape  and  olive  as  a  source  of  revenue,  but  more  often  serving  as  a 
cheap  and  nutritious  food  supply  to  the  poor  peasant  than  as  an  article  of  com- 
merce. Wherever  found  in  the  countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean,  whether 
growing  naturally  or  in  cultivated  orchards,  the  chestnut  is  highly  prized,  both  on 
account  of  its  finely  flavored  nuts  and  its  valuable  wood. 

In  the  uses  of  the  chestnut  the  Italians  are  connoisseurs,  and  from  them  we 
have  much  to  learn  as  to  the  methods  used  in  preparing  it  for  food.  Their  ability 
to  dry  and  preserve  the  nuts  so  that  they  retain  all  of  their  original  flavor  and 
swee-.ness,  without  becoming  dry  and  unpalatable,  is  an  unpracticed  art  with  us,  but 
one  which  necessity  will  soon  compel  us  to  acquire  if  the  nuts  continue  to  grow  in 
popular  favor.  On  the  streets  of  many  foreign  cities  the  nuts  are  sold  by  street 
ven/-  ers  the  year  around,  as  peanuts  are  in  American  cities,  while  among  the  com- 

87 


88  SEVENTH    REPORT    OF    THE    FOREST,    FISH    AND    GAME    COMMISSION. 

mon  people  the  bread  made  from  chestnut  flour  is  a  staple  article  of  diet.  The 
nuts,  too,  are  often  cooked  as  a  vegetable,  made  into  a  soup  or  prepared  as  a 
pudding,  and  when  candied  have  a  ready  sale  as  an  article  of  confectionery. 

The  wood  finds  ready  sale  for  a  variety  of  purposes,  as  in  this  country.  The 
bark  yields  tannin,  the  coppice  makes  first-class  vine  stakes,  while  the  large  tree 
trunks  furnish  wood  material  of  various  kinds,  suitable  wherever  durability  is 
desired.  It  is  asserted  that  there  are  chestnut  trees  on  the  slopes  of  Mt.  yEtna 
which  bore  fruit  when  Homer  was  a  boy. 

Tt)e  Cfyestfmt  in  America. 

Turning  to  our  own  country  and  our  own  State  we  find  the  chestnut  occupying 
relatively  a  much  less  important  position  than  abroad,  the  reason,  perhaps,  being  in 
the  fact  that  because  of  the  greater  diversity  of  valuable  tree  species  there  is  less 
need  of  giving  especial  attention  to  any  one.  Another  reason  may  be  found  in  the 
certainty  that  the  chestnut  is  not  yet  fully  appreciated,  nor  its  many  virtues  and 
capabilities  fully  known.  Among  the  broad-leaved  trees  it  is  hard  to  find  its  equal. 
It  is  a  rapid  grower  on  soils  of  good  or  medium  quality,  forms  a  vigorous  coppice 
(root  sprouts),  yields  a  wood  which,  because  of  the  tannic  acid  it  contains,  is  very 
durable  in  contact  with  the  ground,  and  is  very  valuable  for  fuel,  fence-posts,  cross- 
ties,  telegraph  poles  and  interior  house  furnishing,  while  last,  and  perhaps  most 
important,  it  yields  a  fruit  in  the  form  of  a  very  valuable  nut. 

Until  quite  recently  the  nut  has  not  been  accorded  anything  like  its  true  value ; 
it  has  been  considered  as  a  luxury  rather  than  as  a  valuable  food  product  or  article 
of  commerce.  In  clearing  away  the  virgin  forest  the  chestnut,  along  with  the  wal- 
nut and  hickory,  has  sometimes  been  left  in  the  pasture  lots  and  fence  corners  for 
the  sake  of  the  wholesome  crop  of  nuts  which  were  sure  to  result.  Trees,  too,  have 
been  planted  near  gateways  and  along  roadsides  for  the  sake  of  both  shade  and 
fruit ;  but  anything  like  the  systematic  planting  of  chestnut  orchards  on  a  com- 
mercial scale  has  not  been  extensively  attempted  until  w'thin  the  last  decade. 

The  nuts  which  were  produced  on  the  native  trees  scattered  through  the  pasture 
lands  and  along  the  edge  of  the  wood  lots  were  not  generally  looked  upon  by  the 
farmer  as  possessing  any  value  worthy  of  his  attention.  The  squirrels  and>  the 
children  were  usually  the  ones  most  interested,  and  it  was  often  a  question  as  to 
whom  fell  the  greater  share.  The  squirrels,  with  an  eye  to  the  future,  and  a  knowl- 
edge that  the  chestnut  is  a  valuable  article  of  diet,  assiduously  stored  away  Urge 
quantities  of  nuts  where  they  would  serve  as  a  granary  during  the  midwinter  star- 


CHESTNUT    CULTURE    IN    THE    NORTHEASTERN    UNITED    STATES.  89 

vation  period.  The  children,  on  the  other  hand,  being  assured  of  a  winter  food 
supply  from  other  sources,  gathered  the  chestnuts  partly  for  pleasure,  and,  in  part, 
to  obtain  pin  money.  Pleasure  and  profit  were  thus  well  combined,  because  for  a 
merry  band  of  young  people  to  wander  through  the  autumn  woods  in  search  of  nuts 
was  a  pleasure  which  cannot  be  readily  appreciated  by  the  dwellers  in  urban  commu- 
nities. The  nuts  thus  collected,  which  were  not  dried  and  kept  as  winter  compan- 
ions for  the  apples  and  cider,  were  usually  sold  to  the  local  storekeepers  who 
forwarded  them  to  city  commission  merchants,  whence  they  found  their  way 
to  the  city  markets.  Occasionally  when  nuts  were  plentiful,  agents  traveled  through 
the  country  districts  and  bought  them  in  large  quantities  for  shipment  to  the 
centers  of  consumption. 

Of  late  there  has  been  an  increasing  interest  in  the  growing  and  marketing  of 
both  exotic  and  native  nuts,  and  active  steps  have  been  taken  to  improve  existing 
varieties  and  introduce  new  ones.  By  thus  insuring  a  steady  supply  of  first-class 
nuts  new  uses  for  them  have  been  found,  and  growers  are  now  reasonably  assured 
of  a  steady  and  growing  demand  for  the  fruit  product  of  the  chestnut  tree. 


Tl>e  American 

Castanea  dentata,   Marsh. 

The  generic  name  Castanea  was  probably  derived  from  Kastanea,  a  city  in 
Pontius,  Asia  Minor,  where  the  chestnut  is  a  native,  or  from  the  town  of  Castanea 
in  Thessaly  where  it  is  believed  it  was  first  brought  into  Europe.  Some  botanists 
affirm  that  the  European  chestnut  is  indigenous  to  the  British  Isles  and  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe  ;  but  most  authorities  agree  that  it  was  introduced  into  Greece  from 
Asia  Minor,  thence  carried  to  Italy  by  the  Romans,  whence  it  was  dissemi- 
nated throughout  Southern  and  Western  Europe.  Its  introduction  took  place  so 
long  ago  that  chestnut  trees  have  been  growing  apparently  wild  in  Spain,  Italy, 
France,  and  Great  Britain  for  centuries. 

The  history  of  the  European  chestnut  has  been  noted  somewhat  carefully  because 
it  is  a  question  whether  the  American  nut  is  worthy  of  a  place  as  a  distinct  species, 
or  is  only  a  variety  of  the  European.  From  a  purely  botanical  standpoint  there  is 
little  difference  between  the  two,  yet  the  pomological  variations  are  so  marked  that 
certain  authorities  give  the  American  nut  specific  rank  on  this  basis  alone.  De  Can- 
dolle,  Asa  Gray,  Apgar  and  Loudon  hold  to  the  opinion  that  the  American  chestnut 
is  but  a  variety  of  the  sweet  chestnut  of  Europe.  Prof.  Sargent  and  Mr.  Sudworth, 
on  the  other  hand,  prefer  to  dignify  our  chestnut  as  a  distinct  species.  The  most 


90  SEVENTH    REPORT    OF    THE    FOREST,    FISH    AND    GAME    COMMISSION. 

striking  characteristics  which  distinguish  the  native  from  foreign  chestnuts  are 
found  in  its  taller,  straighter  trunk,  less  rounded  crown,  thinner,  smoother  and  more 
pendent  leaves,  and  smaller,  but,  invariably,  sweeter  nuts.  The  differences  in  all 
cases  are  slight ;  hence,  in  this  discussion  we  shall  be  as  patriotic  as  possible,  and 
follow  the  nomenclature  of  the  school  which  regards  our  chestnut  as  a  distinct 
species. 

The  specific  name  dentata  was  determined  by  Mr.  Sudvvorth  to  be  the  earliest 
name  identifiable  with  it,  and  by  this  it  is  generally  designated.  The  Indians  of 
New  York  State  called  the  chestnut  "  O-heh-yah-tah,"  which  meant  prickly  bur. 

Castanea  is  distinguished  by  its  broad  spreading  habit  when  grown  in  the  open  ; 
its  long,  sharp-pointed,  coarsely  serrate  bright  green  leaves ;  and  its  wealth  of 
creamy-tinted,  fragrant  catkins,  which  burst  into  bloom  in  midsummer  and  give 
color  to  the  landscape  long  after  the  apple  and  cherry  trees  have  scattered  their 
petals  to  the  winds,  or  the  red  maples  have  matured  their  keys  and  the  elms  their 
samaras. 

The  staminate  flowers  are  borne  in  the  axils  of  the  alternate  leaves,  on  cylin- 
drical catkins  six  to  eight  inches  in  length,  which  appear  only  after  the  leaves  are 
nearly  grown  in  June.  The  male  flowers  proper  appear  in  3  to  7  flowered  cymes  in 
the  axils  of  minute  bracts  on  the  rachis  of  the  pendent  ament.  The  pollen  is 
abundant  and  fragrant,  and  is  liberated  readily,  so  that  wind  fertilization  is  easily 
effected. 

The  pistillate  flowers  appear  singly  or  in  groups  of  two  or  three  within  a  short- 
stemmed  involucre  of  closely  imbricated  green  bracts,  in  the  axil  of  a  bract  borne 
on  the  base  of  the  erect  pistillate  ament.  This  involucre  grows  rapidly  and  eventu- 
ally develops  into  the  bur  which  incloses  the  nuts.  At  the  time  of  blooming  the 
female  (pistillate)  flowers,  including  their  burs,  are  about  half  an  inch  long,  and  are 
borne  on  stiff  spikes  that  grow  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves  of  the  newly-formed 
shoots.  Usually  only  3-4  flowers  at  the  base  of  the  spike  produce  fruit.  The 
lower  part  only  of  the  shoot  supporting  the  immature  burs  becomes  woody,  as 
the  portion  beyond  shrivels  and  drops  off,  leaving  the  burs  at  maturity  as  a  terminal 
cluster.  Botanically  the  fruit  is  a  hard  prickly  cupule  (bur)  which  splits  at  maturity 
into  four  valves. 

Just  what  the  bur  of  the  chestnut  is  has  puzzled  botanists  not  inconsiderably, 
and  remains  yet  an  undecided  question.  It  is  thought  to  be  a  whorl  of  metamor- 
phosed bracts. 

The  chestnut  is  strictly  monoecious,  yet  in  most  individuals  the  staminate  cat- 
kins mature  before  the  pistillate,  thus  making  cross  fertilization  a  necessity.  Why 


STAMINATE    AND    PISTILLATE    FLOWERS   OF   THE    PARAGON    CHESTNUT. 


CHESTNUT    BURS   SPREAD   ON    THE    GROUND   TO   DRY. 


CHESTNUT    CULTURE    IN    THE    NORTHEASTERN    UNITED    STATES.  91 

this  provision  is  necessary  in  trees  which  produce  perfect  flowers  of  both  sexes  on 
one  individual  is  a  problem  for  the  evolutionist ;  while  to  the  arboriculturist  the  fact 
is  significant  only  in  that  it  shows  him  that  his  chestnut  trees  should  be  grown  in 
groups  and  not  singly  in  order  to  secure  a  full  crop  of  nuts.  In  growing  the  various 
native  and  exotic  varieties  many  advocate  a  mixing  of  varieties  as  well  as  of 
individuals. 

Few  long-lived  trees  equal,  and  none  surpass,  the  chestnut  in  rapidity  of  growth 
and  ease  of  propagation  under  ordinary  conditions.  In  New  Jersey*  a  chestnut 
tree  is  recorded  which  had  a  diameter  of  60  inches  at  the  age  of  70  years,  and  which 
in  one  year  increased  its  diameter  by  i  inch.  In  the  same  State  several  trees  35 
years  old  ranged  from  24  up  to  34  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  height  of  40-50  feet. 
The  rate  of  growth  is  governed  to  a  great  extent  by  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the 
thinner  soils  being  less  favorable  to  rapid  tree  growth  than  the  deeper  red  sandstone 
lands.  The  above  figures  are  remarkable,  for  the  average  growth  of  the  chestnut  is 
probably  not  over  one-half  as  rapid.  A  diameter  of  8  inches  at  20  years  and  12  at 
30  is  what  may  be  reasonably  expected  as  fair.  Coppice  should  give  trees  of  a  size 
suitable  for  cross-ties  and  telegraph  poles  in  25  to  35  years,  and  large  enough  for 
posts  in  15  to  20  years. 

Our  native  chestnut  is  broadly  distributed  throughout  the  Eastern  United  States, 
and  is  found  at  varying  elevations  from  sea  level  in  Massachusetts,  to  4,500  feet  in 
the  mountains  of  North  Carolina.  It  occurs  also  on  soils  of  very  diversified  nature, 
from  almost  pure  siliceous  sand  to  coarse,  gravelly  soil  or  shale,  or  even  on  lime- 
stone ;  on  the  latter,  however,  it  is  found  only  when  the  strata  of  the  underlying 
rock  is  tilted.  In  general  the  dry  rock)'  land  of  the  glacial  drift  is  preferable  to  the 
richer,  more  compact  alluvial  soil  of  low  lands.  The  soil  best  suited  for  its  growth 
is  a  retentive  clay  containing  some  sand.  The  tree  does  not  require  a  rich  soil. 

In  its  more  definite  geographical  distribution  the  chestnut  is  found  from  South- 
ern Maine  southward  through  New  England  ;  most  abundant  in  the  valley  of  the 
Merrimac  River  south  of  Concord,  and  in  the  Connecticut  valley  as  far  north  as 
Windsor,  Vt.  ;  common  in  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut,  and  along 
the  coast  as  far  south  as  Delaware,  except  where  exposed  to  the  direct  winds  from 
the  sea.  In  Canada  it  is  common  in  the  Province  of  Ontario.  In  the  Middle  States 
it  is  common  in  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Southern  New  York  and  parts  of  Mary- 
land, and  southward  it  is  found  all  along  the  Alleghany  Mountains  to  Alabama,  and 
westward  to  Michigan,  Indiana  and  Tennessee. 

The  chestnut  tree  attains   its  greatest  development  in  Western  North  Carolina 


New  Jersey  Geological  Survey.     Report  on  Forests,     igoo. 


92  SEVENTH    REPORT    OF    THE    FOREST,     FISH    AND    GAME    COMMISSION. 

and  Eastern  Tennessee,  where  specimens  13  feet  in  diameter  and  120  feet  high  have 
been  found.  This  size,  however,  is  exceptional.  The  average  size  at  maturity  in 
regions  of  favorable  growth  is  a  height  of  60  to  80  feet,  with  an  average  diameter  of 
5  feet,  although  much  larger  specimens  not  infrequently  occur.  Near  the  northern 
limit  of  its  range,  which  is  about  44°  latitude  in  the  United  States,  the  tree  is 
decidedly  smaller  and  sprouts  less  readily  from  the  stump  than  farther  south. 

During  the  tertiary  period  Castanea  flourished  from  Greenland  and  Alaska,  and 
traces  of  it  are  found  in  the  miocene  rocks  of  Oregon  and  Colorado. 

In  New  York  the  chestnut  is  plentiful  throughout  the  valley  of  the  upper 
Hudson,  in  Saratoga,  Warren  and  Washington  Counties,  and  along  the  slopes  of  the 
foothills  belonging  to  the  Catskill  uplift.  It  has  not  been  observed  anywhere  on 
the  northern  Adirondack  plateau,  and  is  scattered  only  sparsely  throughout  the 
western  portion  of  the  State.  In  the  Adirondack  region  it  is  too  cold  for  the  chest- 
nut to  mature  its  annual  shoots,  but  in  the  western  part  of  the  State  its  sparseness 
is  due  rather  to  unfavorable  soil  conditions  than  to  climatic  variances,  the  rich 
alluvial  soil  of  Western  New  York  being  little  suited  to  its  best  development.  The 
tree  attains  its  best  development  in  that  part  of  the  State  between  the  Delaware 
River  and  the  Catskills,  along  the  glacial  hills  which  are  a  continuation  of  the  Kitta- 
tinny  Mountains  and  the  northern  "  Jersey  Highlands,"  a  country  famous  for  its  oak 
and  chestnut.  This  region,  although  well  settled  and  cleared,  is  dotted  by  many 
large  wood  lots,  and  here  lie  most  of  the  New  York  "  chestnut  hillsides,"  in  which, 
because  of  their  small  value  for  other  purposes,  lie  the  opportunities  for  the  profit- 
able chestnut  culture  to  be  described  later.  In  Saratoga  and  adjoining  counties 
there  also  exist  splendid  possibilities  for  chestnut  orcharding. 

Within  the  limits  of  its  range  the  chestnut  occurs  either  singly  or  in  scattered 
groups  or  groves,  usually  most  abundant  on  the  high,  gravelly,  well-drained  land  of 
hillsides  and  ridges,  seldom  growing  in  pure  stands,  but  usually  mixed  with  oaks  or 
other  hardwood  trees.  It  has  been  stated  on  good  authority  that  the  "  chestnut  is 
almost  unknown  on  red  shale  land  ;  "  but  in  Central  Pennsylvania  it  is  certainly 
found  growing  well  on  almost  typical  red  shale  soil. 

Groups  of  young  seedlings  are  found  only  in  the  pasture  lands  or  open  forest, 
where  there  is  plenty  of  light,  since,  as  the  chestnut  when  young  is  essentially  a 
light-needing  species,  it  cannot  grow  in  the  lower  story  of  a  high,  dense  canopied 
forest.  The  mature  tree  is  moderately  shade  enduring.  The  chestnut  is  further 
handicapped  in  its  struggle  with  more  tolerant  species,  by  its  characteristic  trait  of 
not  unfolding  its  leaves  until  most  other  trees  are  in  full  foliage,  thus  giving  the 
earlier  trees  something  of  a  monopoly  of  the  available  light  and  space. 


CHESTNUT    CULTURE    IN    THE    NORTHEASTERN    UNITED    STATES.  93 

Forest,  park,  or  pasture-grown  trees  differ  widely  in  general  form  and  habit. 
The  tree  of  the  woods,  because  of  its  crowding  neighbors,  soon  loses  its  lower 
branches  and  is  stimulated  to  thrust  its  crown  upwards  towards  the  light,  where  it 
remains  supported  by  a  long  slender  trunk,  which  is  the  form  most  desired  for  tele- 
graph poles,  cross-ties,  and  the  general  uses  of  the  lumberman.  In  fact  it  is  a 
natural  characteristic  of  the  chestnut  when  grown  in  mixtures  to  shed  its  lower 
branches  quickly,  and  develop  a  smooth,  straight  bole.  When  grown  from  stump 
sprouts  several  of  these  tall,  tapering  trunks  are  often  found  with  their  bases  touch- 
ing or  even  united,  and  all  the  product  of  one  stump. 

Started  in  the  open  and  given  plenty  of  room  in  which  to  spread  itself  in  all 
directions,  the  chestnut  devolves  from  its  tall  slender  habit  and  forms  a  tree  noted 
for  its  short  stable  trunk  and  broad  spreading  crown.  Upon  a  short  trunk,  4  to  8 
feet  in  diameter,  is  often  supported  a  crown  from  40  to  60  feet  high,  with  a  spread 
of  branches  equaling,  or  often  surpassing,  the  tree  in  height.  Many  of  these  spread- 
ing pasture  trees  rank  among  the  most  magnificent  specimens  of  arboreal  growth 
which  are  found  in  the  Eastern  States,  and  to  a  man  who  has  spent  his  childhood  in 
the  freedom  of  the  country  the  sight  or  recollection  of  these  "  spreading  chestnut 
trees"  will  awaken  in  his  mind  many  happy  memories  and  associations  of  those 
blithesome,  unappreciated  boyhood  days  of  long  ago. 

The  exact  extent  to  which  the  native  chestnut  has  been  improved  by  cultivation 
and  extended  beyond  its  natural  range  by  artificial  propagation  is  rather  hard  to 
determine.  Certain  it  is,  however,  that  experiments  along  this  line  have  not  been 
very  comprehensive,  nor  the  results  sufficiently  encouraging  to  warrant  their  con- 
tinuance. American  horticulturists  and  nurserymen  are  not  slow  to  follow  up  a  line 
of  work  which  promises  even  mediocre  returns;  hence,  the  mere  fact  that  our  chest- 
nut has  received  little  attention  from  them  is  in  itself  proof  that  its  cultivation  as  a 
-hade  or  nut-bearing  tree  is  not  exceedingly  profitable.  This  refers  only  to  the  wild 
native  chestnut,  and  not  to  the  improved  or  acclimated  foreign  varieties. 

In  the  South  nothing  has  been  done  further  than  utilizing  for  timber  the  magnifi- 
cent chestnut  trees  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains.  In  the  North  and  West  half- 
hearted attempts,  with  fair  success,  have  been  made  to  extend  its  range  in  the 
suitable  soil  of  mountains  and  hillsides  just  beyond  the  range  of  natural  growth. 
When  carried  too  far  north  the  new  shoots  fail  to  ripen  before  they  are  nipped  by 
the  early  autumn  frosts.  On  stiff  alluvial  soils  the  trees  make  a  fair  growth,  but  are 
short-lived  and  fail  to  produce  fruit  abundantly.  It  is  thought  that  the  presence  of 
lime  or  alkali  in  much  of  the  prairie  soil  is  responsible  for  the  poor  growth.  On 
very  rich  soil  the  growth  is  too  vigorous  and  the  tree  is  liable  to  be  unproductive 


94  SEVENTH    REPORT    OF    THE    FOREST,    FISH    AND    GAME    COMMISSION. 

and  winterkill.  More  potent  than  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  as  sources  of  injury  to 
the  chestnut  are  hot  dry  winds,  and  in  its  susceptibility  to  them  is  found,  perhaps, 
the  principal  reason  why  it  will  not  thrive  on  the  western  plains  and  prairies. 

In  New  York  the  region  of  growth  can  be  extended  northward  towards  the 
St.  Lawrence  Valley  between  the  western  edge  of  the  Adirondack  Mountains  and 
Lake  Ontario,  and  westward  to  the  boundary  of  the  State.  The  region  of  most 
favorable  growth  is  from  the  southern  boundaries  of  Herkimer,  Hamilton  and 
Warren  counties  in  the  Southern  Adirondacks,  southward  to  Pennsylvania  and 
New  Jersey.  In  the  southeastern  corner  of  the  State  the  chestnut  is  decidedly  at 
home  and  can  be  grown  successfully  in  almost  any  part.  The  western  half  of  the 
State,  because  of  its  lower  elevation  and  less  favorable  soil,  does  not  offer  such  a 
promising  field  for  planting  or  grafting  operations ;  yet  even  here  the  rough  hillsides 
offer  opportunities  which  should  not  be  slighted. 

The  chestnut  is  reported  as  growing  well  under  cultivation  as  far  north  as  Saco, 
Maine ;  in  Central  Vermont ;  westward  to  Michigan,  where  plantations  have  been 
made  by  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern  Railroad  along  its  right  of  way ; 
and  at  several  points  in  Wisconsin.  In  most  of  the  Central  and  Southern  States 
attempts  to  grow  the  chestnut  have  proved  unsuccessful. 

Despite  the  fact  that  our  native  chestnut  does  not  possess  the  qualities  which 
make  it  pre-eminently  desirable  from  a  pomological  standpoint,  it  should  not  be 
overlooked  that  as  a  forest  timber  tree,  to  be  grown  as  such,  it  takes  high  rank. 
The  wood  for  railroad  ties  is  considered  almost  the  equal  of  white  oak,  and  about 
five  per  cent  of  the  ties  used  are  of  chestnut,  while  for  fence  posts  and  telegraph 
poles  it  has  no  eastern  rival  except  the  white  cedar.  Its  rapid  growth  and  tendency 
to  reproduce  by  coppice  makes  it  an  exceptionally  valuable  tree  for  these  uses.  It 
reproduces  readily  from  seed  as  well  as  coppices.  The  seeds,  immediately  after 
they  ripen  in  the  fall,  may  be  planted  in  the  places  where  the  trees  are  to  grow 
permanently,  or  they  may  be  layered  in  damp  sand  during  the  winter  for  nursery 
planting  in  the  spring.  If  planted  in  a  nursery  the  trees  should  be  transplanted  at 
the  end  of  the  first  year  to  the  permanent  plantation.  Planted  in  mixtures  with  the 
white  pine  and  red  pine  the  chestnut  is  a  most  excellent  species  to  use  in  reforest- 
ing the  waste  lands  of  Southern  New  England  and  New  York. 

To  summarize,  under  the  head  of  the  "  American  Chestnut  "  it  may  be  said  that 
on  the  whole  the  attempt  to  improve  its  quality  by  cultivation,  and  its  range  by 
planting  or  transplanting,  have  proved  unprofitable.  The  nuts  produced  are  too 
small,  and  the  time  required  for  a  tree  to  come  into  bearing  too  long  to  induce  a 
hustling  American  to  grow  it  for  the  nuts  alone.  Its  greatest  value  for  nut  culture 


CHESTNUT    CULTURE    IN    THE    NORTHEASTERN    UNITED    STATES.  95 

lies  in  its  root  sprouts,  which  furnish  most  excellent  "stocks"  upon  which  to  graft 
the  most  desirable  European  varieties.  As  a  shade  and  timber  tree,  or  source  of 
nuts  for  home  or  local  consumption,  it  will  always  hold  an  esteemed  place  with  the 
American  farmer ;  but  the  horticulturist  or  orchardist  who  wishes  to  produce  nuts 
on  a  large  scale  must  turn  to  the  larger,  more  rapid  growing  European  and  Japanese 
varieties,  or  greatly  improve  the  native  nuts  if  success  is  to  be  assured. 

With  commendable  and  characteristic  American  energy  horticulturists  long  ago 
began  experiments  with  imported  chestnut  seedlings  and  nuts,  so  that  now,  at  the 
time  when  conditions  seem  ripe  for  extensive  commercial  planting  of  nut-bearing 
trees,  there  will  be  no  need  in  choosing  varieties  or  in  growing  scions  or  seedlings, 
as  the  nurserymen  have  the  problem  well  worked  out,  and  can  supply  the  increasing 
demand  for  the  best  Japanese  and  European  chestnut  trees  which  have  been  pro- 
duced up  to  date.  The  complete  history  of  the  introduction  of  exotic  chestnuts 
in  America  is  a  long  one,  and  can  only  be  briefly  summarized  here. 

Tl)e 

It  would  be  neither  safe  nor  advisable  to  attempt  to  give  the  exact  date  at  which 
seedlings  or  nuts  of  the  European  chestnut,  or  "  Spanish  Chestnut,"  as  it  was  popu- 
larly called,  were  first  planted  in  American  soil.  Certain  it  is,  however,  that  the 
introduction  took  place  nearly  a  century  ago,  and  that  imported  trees  have  been 
bearing  fruit  in  this  country  for  over  fifty  years.  It  was  in  the  region  around  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  Wilmington,  Del.,  and  Trenton,  N.  J.,  that  the  first  general  introduc- 
tion took  place,  and  from  here  has  occurred  the  eventual  dissemination  of  the 
different  varieties  to  other  parts  of  the  country. 

The  initial  introduction  of  foreign  nuts  was  not,  as  would  be  expected,  the  work 
of  horticulturists  who  wished  to  propagate  them  for  economic  purposes,  but  the 
result  of  efforts  made  by  wealthy  individuals  to  secure  rare  and  interesting  trees 
adapted  for  planting  on  their  new  world  estates.  To  the  French  "  Marrons  "  is 
accorded  the  credit  of  being  among  the  first  to  introduce  the  European  chestnut. 
Irenee  Dupont,  the  founder  of  the  now  famous  powder  mills  bearing  his  name,  was 
a  recipient  as  early  as  1802  of  chestnut  seed  and  young  trees  from  France.  Most  of 
the  seed  failed  to  grow,  but  records  show  that  a  few  trees  became  established  in  his 
garden,  and  flourished  for  years,  no  doubt  serving  as  a  center  of  distribution  for  the 
surrounding  country. 

Although  the  non-professional  tree  growers  took  precedence  as  to  point  of  time, 
it  was  the  nurserymen  who  inaugurated  the  first  systematic  work  of  introducing  and 


96  SEVENTH    REPORT    OF    THE    FOREST,    FISH    AND    GAME    COMMISSION. 

improving  foreign  varieties  of  chestnuts.  Most  of  these  men  lived  and  carried  on 
their  experiments  within  a  radius  of  fifty  miles  of  Philadelphia.  For  some  years 
there  was  a  mania  for  importing  trees  and  nuts,  and  each  importer  expected  to  find 
the  one  tree  which  would  be  par  excellent  for  this  country  ;  but  the  failure  on  the 
part  of  most  of  the  imports  to  withstand  the  change  of  climate  eventually  curbed 
the  interest  and  checked  the  importation. 

The  chestnut  will  not  grow  true  to  seed,  but  often  it  varies  only  slightly  ;  hence, 
selected  nuts  of  both  foreign  and  native  varieties  were  frequently  planted  in  the 
hope  of  securing  from  the  seedlings  a  nut  in  which  large  size  and  good  quality 
would  be  combined,  and  which  at  the  same  time  would  be  able  to  endure  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  our  climate.  In  most  cases  the  attempts  resulted  in  failure,  although  in  a 
few  instances  desirable  trees  were  secured.  The  same  was  true  with  the  many 
imported  seedlings.  The  greater  number  of  the  imported  trees  proved  frost-tender, 
and  otherwise  unsuited  for  their  new  environment.  Of  the  large  number  planted 
probably  not  over  one  in  a  hundred  has  been  retained  as  possessing  desirable 
characteristics.  Good  quality  rather  than  quantity  in  the  acclimated  varieties  seems 
the  most  difficult  to  obtain.  Trees  which  bear  large  sized  nuts  in  abundance  are 
many,  but  few  of  them  produce  a  finely  flavored  nut.  The  European  nuts  are 
usually  less  bitter  and  astringent  than  the  Japanese ;  but  neither  of  them  can 
approach  the  small  native  nut  in  sweetness  and  delicacy  of  flavor.  The  nurserymen 
have  still  before  them  the  task  of  producing  by  judicious  selection  and  crossing  a 
large  nut  of  fine  quality. 

A  large  number  of  European  varieties  are  listed  by  nurserymen,  but  the  experi- 
ence of  practical  growers  indicates  that  only  a  small  proportion  of  these  are  worthy 
of  propagation.  The  best  are  : 

PARAGON. 

Undoubtedly  the  best  variety  for  general  planting  produced  up  to  date.  The 
original  tree,  according  to  Thomas  Meehan,  was  grown  by  W.  L.  Shaffer,  of  Ger- 
mantown,  Pa.,  from  a  nut  produced  on  one  of  the  old  Spanish  trees  growing  in  a 
Philadelphia  garden.  H.  M.  Engle,  of  Marietta,  Pa.,  was  the  first  to  discover  its 
exceptional  value,  and  by  him  it  was  first  grown  extensively  and  introduced  to  the 
public.  It  is  the  variety  now  exclusively  grown  by  Mr.  C.  K.  Sober,  of  Lewisburg, 
Pa.,  who  owns  a  promising  grove  of  300  acres  near  Shamokin,  Pa.  The  nuts  are 
large,  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  circumference,  and  somewhat  pubescent.  One 
average  specimen  will  cover  a  silver  dollar,  while  thirty-two  selected  nuts  will  weigh 
one  pound.  The  tree  is  hardy  within  the, range  of  the  native  chestnut,  ripening 
moderately  early  in  Central  Pennsylvania  about  October  I,  comes  into  bearing  very 


CHESTNUT    CULTURE    IN    THE    NORTHEASTERN    UNITED    STATES.  97 

young,  and  is  exceedingly  prolific.  In  fact,  the  young  trees  are  such  heavy  bearers 
that  it  is  almost  a  drawback  to  their  value,  as  they  will  exhaust  their  vitality  and 
die,  or  lose  their  vigor  of  growth  if  unrestrained. 

Paragon  grafts  take  exceedingly  well  in  American  stocks,  and  have  been  known 
to  gro.vv  well  when  grafted  upon  red  oak  sprouts.  While  not  free  from  insect 
attacks  the  Paragon  is  much  less  affected  by  the  weevil  than  are  other  varieties. 

A  not  serious  reduction  of  its  many  good  qualities  is  the  tendency  of  the  burs  to 
remain  closed  and  fall  to  the  ground  with  the  nuts  still  retained.  They  open 
readily,  however,  if  spread  in  the  sun ;  hence  the  only  detriment  is  a  slightly 
additional  cost  in  harvesting.  It  saves,  on  the  other  hand,  however,  the  loss  and 
difficulty  occasioned  by  picking  the  nuts  from  the  grass  and  debris  beneath  the 
trees.  For  planting  in  this  State  the  Paragon  can  be  safely  recommended  above  all 
others. 

NUMBO. 

Bur  medium  ;  nut  large,  bright,  slightly  pubescent  and  of  excellent  quality.  It 
is  extensively  grown,  and  is  deserving  of  second  place  in  the  list  of  valuable  varieties. 
Its  greatest  fault  is  that  it  is  not  sufficiently  prolific. 

The  original  Numbo  seedling  is  a  vigorous  tree  still  growing  on  the  nursery 
grounds  of  Mr.  S.  C.  Moon,  at  Morrisville,  Pa.  At  present  it  is  a  tree  with  a 
diameter  of  about  three  feet,  and  a  rounded  symmetrical  crown  with  a  spread  of 
branches  of  about  60  feet.  The  history  of  the  Numbo,  as  given  by  Mr.  S.  C. 
Moon,  is  that  it  is  one  of  the  seedlings  imported  from  France  or  England  by  his 
father,  Mahlon  Moon,  about  1850.  Of  a  large  number  imported,  both  at  this  time 
and  later,  this  tree  turned  out  to  be  the  best  one  of  the  few  good  ones  which  were 
retained.  Many  scions  have  been  taken  from  it,  and  the  Numbo  is  now  known  and 
grown  in  various  parts  of  the  Middle  States.  It  is  not  a  Japanese  seedling,  as  many 
suppose,  nor  is  Numbo  a  Japanese  word  ;  but  is  rather  an  abbreviation  of  the  name 
Magnum  Bonum,  which  the  elder  Moon  first  applied  to  the  variety. 

RlDGELY. 

Bur  medium,  nut  smaller  than  Paragon  and  less  pubescent  at  tip.  The  skin  is 
astringent,  but  the  flavor  of  the  nut  is  good.  The  tree  is  hardy  and  a  very  prolific 
bearer.  The  original  seedling  was  sprouted  by  Ire*nee  Dupont,  Wilmington,  Del., 
and  sent  to  Henry  M.  Ridgely  about  1822.  Because  of  its  hardiness  it  is  worthy  of 
experimental  propagation  in  New  York  State.  It  bears  a  very  large  nut,  bright  in 
color,  and  of  attractive  appearance.  It  is  a  very  heavy  producer  and  is  among  the 
7 


98  SEVENTH    REPORT    OF' THE    FOREST,    FISH    AND    GAME    COMMISSION. 

earliest  to  ripen.     Because  of  its  beauty  and  earliness  it  brings  a  high  price  in  the 
market,  and  should  be  grown  in  quantities  sufficient  to  supply  the  early  demand. 

Tl>e  Japanese  Cfyestnats. 

The  Japanese  chestnuts  are  of  more  recent  introduction  than  the  European ;  but 
from  the  limited  experience  with  them  it  seems  certain  that  they  are  a  valuable 
acquisition.  The  limits  of  the  range  to  which  they  are  adapted  is  uncertain ;  it 
seems  probable  that  their  distribution  may  comprise  the  area  covered  by  the 
American  chestnut.  Judge  Andrew  J.  Coe  carried  on  experiments  some  years  ago, 
near  Meriden,  Conn.,  which  seem  to  show  that  Japanese  varieties  are  hardy  in  this 
part  of  New  England.  In  low  land  where  frosts  were  very  severe  he  grafted 
several  newly  imported  varieties  upon  native  stocks,  and  found  that  they  not  only 
made  a  close  union  and  rapid  growth,  but  were  uninjured  and  bore  well  after  frosts 
of  unusual  severity. 

Compared  with  the  American  and  European  varieties  the  Japanese  chestnut  is  a 
smaller  tree, —  a  semi-dwarf,  with  a  compact  crown,  slender  branches  and  small  buds, 
apparently,  though  not  actually  opposite.  The  leaves  are  long,  narrow,  usually 
pointed,  with  sharp  teeth  and  a  white  tomentum  underneath.  At  a  short  distance 
the  tree  is  quite  peach-like  in  appearance.  The  burs  are  small,  thin,  with  large  nuts, 
free  from  pubescence ;  but  the  meat  is  covered  with  a  bitter  skin,  which  should  be 
removed  before  eating.  Are  very  early  to  ripen.  The  nuts  are  of  poor  flavor  when 
raw,  but  excellent  when  cooked.  The  foliage  is  comparatively  free  from  the  com- 
mon leaf  fungi,  making  the  tree  very  desirable  for  ornamental  planting.  -Will  proba- 
bly succeed  better  south  than  north. 

The  wood  is  rather  slow  growing,  but  Japanese  scions  have  a  close  affinity  for 
American  stocks,  and  hence  take  well  when  grafted.  It  has  been  asserted  that 
because  of  this  affinity  they  are  more  desirable  for  grafting  on  American  stocks  than 
the  trees  of  European  derivation.  This  has  been  found  to  be  an  unjust  criticism 
when  comparing  the  two,  because  the  best  European  varieties,  of  which  the  Paragon 
and  Numbo  are  fair  samples,  take  readily  on  American  wood. 

In  New  York  the  grafting  of  Japanese  chestnuts  on  native  stocks  has  been 
reported  as  successful  in  Washington  and  Yates  Counties.  In  Rockland  County 
both  whip  grafting  and  budding  have  given  fair  results. 

The  first  introductions  were  the  outcome  of  efforts  made  by  several  nurserymen 
to  find  and  naturalize  valuable  Japanese  seedlings.  The  climatic  conditions  of  parts 
of  Japan  are  not  widely  different  from  those  of  the  Eastern  United  States,  and  as 


CHESTNUT    CULTURE    IN    THE    NORTHEASTERN    UNITED    STATES.  99 

other  trees  and  shrubs  had  been  introduced  successfully,  it  was  inferred  that  the 
chestnut  could  be  added  to  the  list.  The  first  recorded  importations  were  by  Mr. 
L.  B.  Parsons,  of  Flushing,  N.  Y.,  in  1876.  These  trees  received  very  little  care,  but, 
nevertheless,  grew  and  soon  came  into  bearing.  In  1882  the  late  William  Parry,  of 
Parry,  .N.  J.,  began  their  importation  on  a  large  scale,  and  has  done  much  toward 
improving  and  disseminating  the  best  varieties.  Probably  no  one  has  done  more  to 
arouse  interest  in  chestnut  culture  and  put  it  on  a  commercial  basis  than  Mr.  Parry. 
For  years  he  was  engaged  in  importing  chestnuts,  propagating  new  varieties  and 
improving  the  old,  and  several  valuable  varieties  have  originated  in  his  nurseries. 
Mr.  J.  T.  Lovett,  of  Little  Silver,  N.  J.,  also  imported  trees  and  nuts  extensively  in 
the  earlier  '8os,  and  has  produced  several  new  varieties.  He  now  prefers  European 
varieties,  however,  and  has  at  Emilie,  Pa.,  a  fine  Paragon  orchard  of  about  1,200 
trees  from  four  to  thirteen  years  old. 

The  number  of  Japanese  varieties  offered  by  nurserymen  is  very  large,  but  are 
much  confused  as  to  nomenclature,  because  of  the  distribution  of  seedlings  under 
various  good  selling  names,  such  as  Mammoth,  Giant,  etc.  Those  recommended  as 
of  tested  value  are  the  following : 

ALPHA. 

First  in  importance  as  well  as  name.  Originated  by  William  Parry,  of  Parry, 
N.  J.  Claimed  to  be  the  earliest  known  variety  of  chestnut,  and  especially  valuable 
on  this  account.  Ripens  at  Parry,  N.  J.,  about  September  10.  Tree  an  upright, 
vigorous  grower,  and  very  productive.  The  original  tree  began  to  bear  when 
three  years  old,  and  has  never  failed  since  to  produce  a  full  crop.  Burs  rather  small, 
somewhat  flattened  ;  spines  thick,  short  and  stiff ;  nuts  large,  averaging  two  or  three 
to  the  bur.  Quality  only  fair,  but  it  commands  a  high  price  in  the  market  because 
of  its  early  appearance. 

RELIANCE 

Another  one  of  Parry's  seedlings.  Tree  a  semi-dwarf,  low  spreading  and  droop- 
ing. Comes  Into  bearing  remarkably  early.  Scions  not  infrequently  mature  fruit 
the  first  year  they  are  set.  This  should  not  be  allowed,  however,  as  the  early 
bearing  injures  the  future  vitality  of  the  tree  and  reduces  the  size  of  the  nuts. 
Burs  medium,  with  three  to  five  large  nuts  to  the  bur.  Ripens  from  September, 
20  to  October  i,  in  New  Jersey. 

HALE. 

Originated  from  seed  imported  in  1886  by  Luther  Burbank.  Now  grown  by 
J.  H.  Hale.  Tree  low,  of  spreading  habit,  with  narrow  pointed  leaves  of  a  very 


IOO         SEVENTH    REPORT    OF    THE    FOREST,    FISH    AND    GAME    COMMISSION. 

glossy  dark  green  color.  Burs  with  thin  peppery  shell,  each  normally  containing 
three  nuts  of  medium  size  and  rich  brown  color.  Is  very  prolific,  and,  from  experi- 
ments of  Hon.  Andrew  J.  Coe,  in  Connecticut,  very  hardy. 

PARRY. 

One  of  the  best  productions  of  the  Parry  nurseries.  It  is  the  original  "  Parry's 
giant,"  also  called  "  Japan  giant."  Tree  large  for  a  Japanese  chestnut,  open, 
spreading,  very  prolific  and  an  early  bearer.  Burs  very  large,  containing  usually 
one,  sometimes  three  nuts.  Nuts  largest  known,  sometimes  two  inches  across  ; 
ridged  ;  bright  mahogany  color,  and  of  fair  quality.  If  exceptionally  large  nuts  are 
desired  this  is  the  variety  to  plant. 

To  attempt  a  close  discrimination  based  on  the  general  qualities  of  the  Japanese 
and  European  varieties  of  chestnuts  is  rather  difficult  because  both  groups  have 
many  good  qualities,  and  each,  unfortunately,  several  bad  ones.  For  each,  too,  can 
be  found  men  who  earnestly  advocate  the  propagation  of  their  favorite  group  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  other;  hence,  to  favor  one  is  to  produce  enmity.  The  difficulty  is 
that  few  growers  have  experimented  with  more  than  a  few  varieties  of  each  group, 
and  they  are  inclined  to  make  sweeping  assertions  on  a  limited  experience. 

If  the  general  characteristics  of  each  group,  as  far  as  known,  be  listed  and  com- 
pared the  balance  of  favor  would  give  the  Japan  nuts  first  place.  If,  however,  the 
two  or  three  best  and  most  widely  grown  varieties  of  each  be  compared,  the  imports 
from  the  far  East  are  immediately  reduced  to  second  place.  The  experience  of 
practical  growers  corroborates  this  view,  and  men  who  were  once  heavy  importers 
of  Japanese  seedlings  are  now  planting  only  European  trees  in  their  commercial 
orchards.  When  the  Oriental  varieties  were  first  introduced  it  was  thought  they 
would  be  the  money  makers  in  either  groves  or  orchards ;  but  to-day  it  is  hard  to 
find  them  grown  on  a  large  scale. 

As  an  ornamental  tree  the  Japanese  chestnut  is  of  undoubted  value  because  of 
its  freedom  from  disfiguring  fungi  and  insects,  and  its  large  beautiful  nuts.  From 
the  purely  financial  standpoint,  however,  as  well  as  for  horticultural  reasons,  the 
more  enduring,  better  flavored  European  varieties  are  to  be  recommended  for 
extensive  propagation  in  New  York  and  the  Northern  States.  It  is  advisable,  never- 
theless, for  all  growers  to  experiment  to  some  extent  with  varieties  of  uncertain 
value,  so  that  they  may  find  the  ones  best  suited  to  their  local  conditions. 


CHESTNUT    CULTURE-  IN    THE    NORTHEASTERN    UNITED    STATES.  IQI 


of  Management. 

Two  distinctive  methods  of  chestnut  culture  are  in  vogue  in  the  Eastern  United 
States.  The  one  is  the  method  of  grafting  young  native  chestnut  coppice  (sprouts) 
with  the  scions  of  Japanese,  European,  or  native  varieties,  and  depending  on  the 
roots  of  the  old  stump,  and  the  new  roots  which  are  developed,  to  afford  nourish- 
ment and  give  the  necessary  mechanical  support.  Where  the  natural  stump  sprouts 
are  thus  grafted  the  resulting  growth  is  called  a  "  chestnut  grove." 

The  other  method  is  to  grow  young  plants  from  seed,  graft  them  in  the  nursery 
when  two  or  three  years  old  and  the  following  year  set  them  in  orchard  rows  in 
cleared  or  cultivated  ground.  When  nursery  seedlings  are  cultivated  in  this  way 
they  are  described  as  a  "  chestnut  orchard." 

The  propagation  of  chestnuts  in  groves  by  the  grafting  of  numerous  young 
sprouts  is  decidedly  the  most  advisable,  both  from  an  economic  and  purely  horticul- 
tural standpoint,  in  a  country  where  native  trees  are  at  all  common.  If  only  a  par- 
tial stand  of  sprouts  can  be  obtained,  they  should  be  encouraged  and  grafted,  and 
seedlings  planted  in  the  blank  spaces  between,  other  species  of  course  being 
cut  out. 

The  grafted  sprouts  by  virtue  of  the  old  established  root  system  are  furnished 
an  abundant  supply  of  nourishment  and  make  a  surprisingly  rapid  growth,  often 
bearing  fruit  profusely  when  only  three  or  four  years  old.  One  little  Paragon  graft 
in  Mr.  Sober's  grove  matured  56  large  burs  when  only  two  years  old.  Trees  three 
to  five  years  old  bear  several  pints  of  nuts  annually,  while  their  crop  when  more 
than  five  years  old  may  be  counted  in  quarts.  Paragon  grafts  when  ten  to  twelve 
years  old  produce  on  an  average  a  half  a  bushel  or  more  of  nuts.  With  a  chestnut 
grove  there  is,  too,  less  liability  of  failure  in  obtaining  a  full  stand  of  trees,  as  the 
loss  attendant  upon  transplanting  is  eliminated,  while  the  great  number  of  sprouts 
which  spring  up  in  a  newly  cut-over  chestnut  forest  gives  an  abundance  of  stocks 
upon  which  to  graft  the  scions.  With  experienced  men  there  is  little  loss  in  the 
grafting  process,  and  under  favorable  circumstances  ninety  per  cent  of  the  grafts 
may  be  expected  to  take.  By  grafting  a  large  number  of  sprouts  per  acre  there  is 
sure  to  be  left,  after  deducting  for  all  probable  loss,  a  thick  stand,  which  may  be 
thinned  as  conditions  require,  thus  keeping  the  ground  continually  covered,  and 
production,  even  at  the  outset,  at  its  maximum.  The  newly  grafted  sprouts  which 
are  removed  to  make  room  for  others  furnish  a  fine  supply  of  new  scions,  if  cut  in 
the  late  fall  or  winter. 

The  trees  which  are  ultimately  to  c<      r  the  ground  and  produce  the  fruit  should 


IO2         SEVENTH    REPORT    OF    THE    FOREST,    FISH    AND    GAME    COMMISSION. 

not  be  allowed  to  mature  burs  while  less  than  five  or  six  years  old  ;  but  since  the 
original  stand  is  to  be  thinned  eventually,  it  is  possible  to  mark,  at  an  early  date, 
those  intended  for  removal,  and  allow  them  to  fruit  while  young,  thus  securing 
early  returns  without  working  permanent  injury  to  the  grove. 

Financially  the  chestnut  grove  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  orchard  for  several 
reasons.  First,  the  cost  of  cutting  off  the  old  stand  and  grafting  the  sprouts  does 
not  greatly  exceed  the  expense  of  producing  seedlings  and  grafting  them  in  the 
nursery,  and,  in  addition,  the  chestnut  timber  removed  is  usually  of  considerable 
value  for  fuel,  poles  or  railroad  ties.  Secondly,  the  ground  which  produces  the 
sprouts  is  usually  of  little  value  for  agricultural  purposes,  being  mostly  rough  waste 
land  ;  while  in  setting  a  chestnut  orchard  land  is  required  which  would  be  of  con- 
siderable value  for  general  agricultural  purposes.  Thus  the  cost  of  the  first  invest- 
ment is  in  favor  of  the  chestnut  grove  rather  than  the  orchard  ;  hence,  from  the 
latter  it  would  be  necessary  to  realize  a  greater  income  in  order  to  pay  interest  on 
the  large  capital  tied  up  in  the  more  expensive  land.  As  a  third  condition  there  is 
an  appreciable  loss  in  time  —  and,  hence,  in  revenue  —  in  the  chestnut  orchard; 
because  seedlings,  especially  when  retarded  by  an  early  graft,  do  not  come  into 
bearing  nearly  as  early  as  do  the  grafted  sprouts.  A  vigorous  stump  sprout  will  be 
a  tree  eight  to  twelve  feet  in  height  when  five  to  seven  years  old,  and  will  produce 
several  quarts  of  nuts  annually.  A  grafted  seedling  does  not  attain  this  size,  nor 
bear  to  the  same  extent  until  eight  to  twelve  years  old.  The  seedling,  however,  has 
the  advantage  of  longer  life  and  less  liability  of  deterioration. 

With  the  rough,  idle  chestnut  hillsides  and  flats  of  New  York,  as  well  as  other 
States,  it  is  a  question  of  raising  chestnuts  or  waiting  through  a  long  period  of  years 
for  the  timber  to  mature.  Even  then  the  most  desirable  timber  trees  will  not  grow 
unless  planted,  so  great  is  the  power  of  worthless  species  to  crowd  out  the  more 
valuable  ones.  On  the  fertile  soil  of  the  plains  or  uplands  where  most  of  the  chest- 
nut orchards  are  located,  it  is  a  question  of  raising  chestnuts,  pears,  apples  or  other 
common  fruit ;  hence  the  loss  in  case  the  chestnuts  fail  is  much  greater.  In  the 
latter  case  chestnut  culture  becomes  merely  a  branch  of  horticulture,  to  be  governed 
by  much  the  same  rules  as  apply  to  apple  and  pear  orchards.  When  the  sprouts  on 
a  worthless  old  hillside  are  grafted  and  made  to  produce  a  valuable  crop  of  nuts,  as 
well  as  timber,  the  work  is  surely  entitled  to  a  place  as  a  branch  of  forestry,  since  the 
essential  elements  of  a  tree  forest  are  all  present,  and  are  preserved  rather  than 
disturbed.  In  addition  it  is  an  important  step  towards  the  solution  of  the  great 
problem  of  reclaiming  the  worthless  waste  land?  which  at  present  are  a  menace  to 
the  surrounding  forests,  and  which  show  ?  lack  of  the  Yankee  ingenuity  that  has 


A   YOUNG   CHESTNUT    "  GROVE." 

TREES    SIX    YEARS    OLD.       PARAGONS    GRAFTED    ON    NATIVE    SPROUTS. 


DISTANT    VIEW   OF   ONE   OF    MR.    SOBER'S   CHESTNUT    GROVES. 


GENERAL   VIEW   IN    THE    "  GROVE "    OF    THE    ALBION   CHESTNUT   COMPANY. 

THE   TREES    ARE    NINE    YEARS    OLD,    MOSTLY    NUMBOS. 


A   CHESTNUT    "ORCHARD." 


CHESTNUT    CULTURE    IN    THE    NORTHEASTERN    UNITED    STATES.  103 

solved  the  problem  of  "  complete  utilization  "  in  nearly  every  branch  of  commercial 
activity,  except  forestry. 

The  chestnut  orchard,  it  is  true,  often  has  the  advantage  of  location,  accessibility 
to  market,  freedom  from  underbrush,  and  lessened  danger  from  fire,  while  as  an 
additional  advantage  the  purely  artificial  orchard  may  be  started  in  a  region  where 
the  chestnut  is  not  indigenous.  To  the  man,  however,  who  is  after  the  largest 
returns  in  the  shortest  time,  the  chestnut  grove,  produced  by  grafting  the  coppice 
sprouts  in  the  natural  chestnut  forest,  provides  the  most.  A  combination  of  the 
two  may  perhaps  be  profitably  effected  under  certain  conditions. 

Tt>e  Cl)e$tnat  Orchard. 

Although  chestnut  orcharding  in  its  extreme  form  is  not  considered  as  profitable 
as  the  grove  system,  yet  the  method  of  procedure  is  here  briefly  outlined  for  the 
benefit  of  those  who  wish  to  grow  chestnuts  and  yet  do  not  have  the  native  sprouts 
upon  which  to  start  their  scions. 

The  first  step  is  the  starting  of  the  seedlings  in  the  nursery.  These  may  be 
grown  from  native  or  imported  nuts,  it  being  immaterial  which  so  long  as  vigorous 
seedlings  are  produced.  The  seeds  (nuts)  may  be  planted  in  the  fall  or  spring  in 
nursery  rows  four  or  five  inches  apart  in  the  row  and  covered  one  to  two  inches 
deep.  Fall  planting  is  advisable  if  the  nuts  can  be  protected  from  mice  and 
squirrels.  If  planting  is  delayed  until  spring  the  nuts  should  be  kept  over  winter, 
layered  in  damp  sand.  In  one  year  they  should  have  attained  a  height  of  six  to 
twelve  inches,  and  in  two  years  stand  two  to  three  feet  high.  The  third  spring  they 
should  be  grafted  while  yet  in  the  nursery  rows,  and  the  following  spring  trans- 
ferred to  the  orchard  rows.  Tongue  or  whip  grafting  is  the  most  successful 
method.  Budding,  grafting  one  year  olds  at  the  collar,  and  root  grafting  as  done 
with  apple  trees,  have  all  been  tried,  but  with  little  success.  As  a  variation  on  the 
above,  the  two  or  three-year-old  seedlings  are  sometimes  first  transplanted  to  the 
orchard  rows  and  then  grafted.  This,  however,  results  in  a  loss  of  time  because  the 
trees  must  be  allowed  to  get  their  root  system  firmly  established  before  setting 
the  scions,  otherwise  they  will  not  have  sufficient  vitality,  to  withstand  the  shock  of 
both  grafting  and  transplanting. 

The  trees  are  usually  set  thirty  feet  apart  each  way  J  but  with  the  smaller 
Japanese  varieties  they  may  be  set  as  close  as  twenty  feet.  In  the  New  Jersey 
orchards  the  ground  is  kept  cultivated  for  some  years,  during  which  crops  of  corn  or 

potatoes  are  raised  between  the  rows.     MrpR.  Williams,  of  Riverton,  N.  J.,  tried  the 

'  V 


IO4         SEVENTH    REPORT    OF    THE    FOREST,    FISH    AND    GAME    COMMISSION. 

experiment  of  setting  native  seedlings,  four  to  six  feet  high,  in  rows  twenty  feet 
apart,  cutting  back  the  limbs  to  the  two-year-old  growth,  and  inserting  scions  of 
Japanese  varieties.  The  plan  is  not  advisable  because  it  makes  the  crown  too  high 
and  heavy  to  be  safely  supported  by  the  long  slender  trunk. 

No  case  is  known  where  grafted  seedlings  have  been  set  in  brush  land.  The  first 
cost  would  be  somewhat  greater;  but  there  seems  no  evident  reason  why  such  treat- 
ment would  not  be  successful.  If  seedlings  will  thrive  equally  well  in  cultivated 
or  brush  land,  one  of  the  objections  to  chestnut  orcharding  would  be  removed. 
The  long  time  element  remains,  however,  an  unchanging  disadvantage  in  such 
management. 

Tl)e  G)estnQt  Grove. 

Given  a  mixed  stand  of  coppice  chestnut  and  oak  and  other  hardwoods,  to  trans- 
form into  a  nut-bearing  grove  of  improved  exotic  varieties.  The  system  applied  in 
the  best  groves  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey  is  practically  as  follows: 

In  the  late  fall  or  winter  all  trees  and  brush  are  removed  from  the  area  under 
management,  care  being  taken  to  cut  the  chestnut  near  the  ground  and  leave 
smooth  stumps.  From  these  stumps  there  will  spring  up  during  the  following  sum- 
mer a  vigorous  growth  of  sprouts,  usually  several  around  each  stump,  which  in  one 
year  reach  a  height  of  four  to  six  feet,  and  a  diameter  from  one-fourth  to  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  at  two  feet  from  the  ground.  Experience  has  shown  that  sprouts 
of  this  size  are  the  best  for  grafting;  hence  it  follows  that  the  second  spring  after 
the  timbe"  is  cut  off  grafting  operations  may  begin. 

Grafting  may  be  commenced  when  the  buds  first  start ;  but  it  is  better  to  wait  a 
little  later,  until  the  sap  flows  freely.  May  is  the  best  month  in  which  to  graft, 
although  it  may  be  commenced  as  early  as  the  middle  of  April.  The  tongue  or 
whip  graft  is  the  method  which  should  be  exclusively  used.  Budding,  cleft  (wedge) 
grafting,  prong  grafting,  crown  grafting  and  many  other  methods  have  been  tried, 
but  experience  has  shownK  that  they  are  in  general  impracticable.  The  cleft  or 
wedge  graft  can  be  set  in  stocks  of  a  size  up  to  several  inches,  and  usually  succeeds 
to  the  extent  of  making  a  un;  at  it  seldom  heals  smoothly,  and  usually  leaves 

an  opening  between  the  ?  *vhich  becomes  a  source  of  infection  and  point  of 

structural  weakness  to  th£  ,vho)^  *vee.  With  the  small  sprouts  and  the  whip  graft 
the  union  is  seldom  discernible  a'fter  a  few  years. 

The  scions  should  be  cut  early  and  kept  dormant  in  a  cellar  or  ice  house  until 
the  buds  on  the  stocks  are  well  swollen  in  the  spring.  It  should  be  remembered 


SPROUTS   BEFORE    GRAFTING. 

THE    PLACE    WHERE   THE   SPROUT   IS    GRASPED    BY    THE    FINGERS    SHOWS    THE   HEIGHT    AT   WHICH    IT    SHOULD 

BE   CUT    OFF    AND    THE    SCION    INSERTED. 


THE    "WHIP"   OR    "TONGUE"    GRAFT. 


.,.,* 


GRAFTS    FOURTEEN    DAYS   OLD. 

SHOWS    METHOD    OF    WRAPPING    WITH        USLIX. 


CHESTNUT    CULTURE    IN    THE    NORTHEASTERN    UNITED    STATES.  105 

that  the  sap  of  the  chestnut  does  not  start  as  early  as  .that  of  apples,  pears  and 
other  succulent  fruit,  and  hence  grafting  should  be  done  later. 

The  stump  sprouts  should  be  cut  off  and  the  scions  inserted  some  three  to  four 
feet  from  the  ground,  so  as  to  keep  the  heads  low.  Where  there  is  a  circle  of 
sprouts  around  a  stump  the  ones  which  start  nearest  the  ground  should  always  be 
chosen,  because  they  root  in  more  firmly  and  are  less  liable  to  damage  by  the  wind 
In  a  group  of  sprouts,  such  as  spring  from  one  stump,  only  one  or  two  are  grafted.; 
but  the  rest  are  left  during  the  first  year  as  a  protection  to  the  young  grafts. 
Where  sprouts  are  plentiful  grafts  should  be  put  in  every  12  to  15  feet  or  from  200 
to  400  per  acre,  care  being  taken  to  leave  no  open  spots  or  any  unnecessary  group- 
ing. As  the  trees  grow  and  expand  the  poor  and  crowded  specimens  should  be 
removed  to  make  room'  for  the  better  trees.  If  small  seedlings  appear  they  should 
also  be  grafted. 

Many  mistakes  have  been  made  in  grafting,  and  as  it  is  a  most  important  phase 
of  chestnut  growing,  in  fact,  the  basis  of  success,  too  much  care  cannot  be  given  to 
this  part  of  the  work.  If  well  done  ninety  per  cent  of  the  grafts  should  live.  An 
experienced  man  should  set  250  scions  per  day,  and  do  it  well.  In  whip  or  tongue 
grafting  the  stock  and  scion  should  be  of  as  nearly  the  same  diameter  as  possible, 
and  the  cut  on  each  long  and  smooth  and  made  with  a  thin,  very  sharp  knife.  Each 
should  then  be  cut  vertically  so  as  to  leave  a  wedge-shaped  piece  on  the  face  of  each 
cut,  so  that  the  tongue  of  the  scion  may  be  forced  firmly  into  the  cleft  of  the  stock. 
The  union  should  be  exact,  so  that  the  inner  side  of  the  bark  on  each  will  coincide 
at  least  on  one  side.  The  joint  should  be  thoroughly  waxed,  and  as  a  further 
precaution  wrapped  tightly  with  waxed  muslin.  The  muslin  holds  everything  firm, 
thus  hastening  the  union  of  the  cambium  layers.  It  excludes  air  from  the  cracks  in 
the  wax  caused  by  the  expanding  sprout,  and  gives  a  mechanical  support  which 
prevents  breakage  of  the  joint  by  the  wind.  The  yearly  growth  of  grafts  wh  n 
thus  treated  is  quite  remarkable.  When  two  months  old  they  are  often  two  to 
three  feet  in  length,  while  it  is  recorded  that  one  specimen  grew  in  one  year  a  linear 
distance  of  54  feet,  counting  the  main  axis  and  all  the  lateral  branches.  The  writer 
measured  one  graft  which  had  been  inserted  14  days  and  found  it  to  be  ten  inches 
long.  The  first  year's  growth  is  inclined  to  assume  a  fan-shaped  form,  and  not 
make  a  well-rounded  crown  ;  hence  it  has  been  found  adv  itageous  to  cut  back  the 
first  year's  growth  in  the  fall  so  that  only  a  stub  three  to  four  inches  long,  contain- 
ing two  to  three  buds,  remains.  The  following  year  these  buds  will  grow  into  a 
well-rounded  head. 

An  interesting  fact  is  that  many  of  the  European  chestnuts  will  grow  equally 


IO6        SEVENTH    REPORT    OF    THE    FOREST,    FISH    AND    GAME    COMMISSION. 

well  if  grafted  upon  oak  sprouts  or  seedlings.  In  France  and  England  the  chestnut 
has  been  grafted  upon  the  English  oak  (Quercus  robus]  for  years.  In  this  country 
the  U.  S.  Division  of  Pomology  found  by  experiments  that  several  varieties  of 
European  chestnuts,  including  the  Paragon,  Numbo  and  Ridgely,  grow  well  on  our 
chestnut  oak  (Quercus  prinus).  In  Central  Pennsylvania  the  Paragon  has  been  seen 
grafted  upon  red  oak  (Quercus  rubra)  with  evident  success.  This  adaptability  of 
the  chestnut  to  thrive  on  oak  stocks  materially  increases  its  range  and  possibilities. 

It  is  essential  that,  a  good  grafting  wax  be  used  if  success  is  to  be  attained.  An 
excellent  wax  is  the  following  from  an  original  formula  by  Mr.  C.  K.  Sober,  Lewis- 
burg,  Pa.:  Resin,  2  pounds;  beeswax,  2  pounds;  beef  tallow,  ^  pound.  The 
whole  to  be  melted  together  and  worked  into  a  wax  upon  cooling. 

Another  wax  recommended  by  the  U.  S.  Division  of  Pomology  for  nut  trees  is: 
Linseed  oil  or  tallow,  I  pound;  resin,  6  pounds;  beeswax,  I  pound.  Melt  all  the 
ingredients  together,  pour  into  water  to  cool,  and  knead  into  balls  of  convenient 
size. 

As  to  species  it  is  hard  to  say  anything  definite,  because  local  conditions  so 
greatly  affect  species  and  the  final  results.  The  Numbo,  Paragon  and  various 
Japanese  varieties  take  well  on  American  stocks.  From  the  experience  of  the  prac- 
tical men  in  the  business,  and  from  personal  observation,  it  seems,  however,  safe  to 
recommend  the  Paragon  as  the  best  for  general  propagation  in  chestnut  groves. 
With  whichever  variety  is  chosen  for  the  main  crop,  trees  of  another  variety  should 
be  mixed  in  so  that  cross-pollinization  may  be  effected,  although  there  is  some 
uncertainty  as  to  whether  this  is  absolutely  essential. 

Harvesting. 

i~ 

Vith  ihe  exception  of  the  Paragon  the  imported  chestnuts  have  burs  which  open 
\v  a  the  r  *.„>  are  ripe,  allowing  them  to  fall  to  the  ground,  where  they  may  be  col- 
lected. It  may  be  mentioned  here  that  the  frost  performs  no  direct  function  in 

•      y  ' 
ripening  the  huts,  although  there  exists  a  widespread  notion  to  the  contrary.     The 

process  of  rinening  is  gradual,  and  is  usually  finished  before  frosts  occur.  The  part 
the  frost  really  plays  is  in  checking  the  growth  of  the  tree,  and  thus  causing  the 
withdrawal  of  the  sap  from  the  twigs  and  burs.  This  reduction  in  moisture  results 
in  a  shrinkage  in  parts  of  the  bur;  the  outer,  thinner,  and  more  exposed  portion 
drys  more  rap  dly  than  the  thicker  inner  part  around  and  at  the  base  of  the  nuts. 
It  is  this  unequa1  shnnkage  which  causes  the  involucre  to  open.  A  long  rain,  fol- 
lowed by  drying  weather,  is  en  equally  effective  in  opening  the  burs. 


CHESTNUT    CULTURE    IN    THE    NORTHEASTERN    UNITED    STATES.  107 

In  the  case  of  the  Paragon  the  burs  must  be  picked  from  the  trees  by  hand,  or, 
by  waiting,  they  may  be  gathered  from  underneath  the  trees,  as  the  closed  burs  soon 
fall.  Ripeness  is  indicated  by  the  yellow  color  of  the  bur,  and  a  slight  cracking 
open  at  the  end,  disclosing  the  nut  within.  The  collected  burs  if  spread  in  the  sun 
a  few  days  will  open  fully,  and  liberate  the  nuts. 

Care  of  tl)e  Crop. 

Having  secured  a  crop  of  nuts  the  next  step  is  their  proper  care  and  disposition. 
Those  sold  immediately  need  no  special  care,  and  from  present  indications  prompt 
sale  of  a  large  crop  will  not  be  difficult.  There  is  a  growing  demand  for  large, 
sweet  chestnuts,  especially  in  the  Middle  West,  and  dealers  are  usually  on  hand  to 
buy  up  the  crop  even  before  it  is  harvested.  Prices  for  the  best  nuts  range  from 
five  to  twelve  dollars  per  bushel.  On  the  streets  of  Philadelphia,  Paragon  nuts  sell 
readily  at  forty  cents  per  quart. 

If  not  immediately  disposed  of  the  nuts  should  be  subjected  to  some  treatment 
to  prevent  their  getting  hard  and  being  destroyed  by  weevils.  Probably  the  best 
treatment  is  the  scalding  method.  By  this  plan  a  quantity  of  nuts  are  put  in  a  tub, 
or  other  water-tight  receptacle,  and  covered  with  boiling  water.  If  stirred  for  a  few 
minutes  the  wormy,  and  otherwise  defective  ones,  will  come  to  the  surface  and  may 
be  removed  and  destroyed.  The  good  nuts  in  the  bottom  should  be  allowed  to 
remain  for  ten  minutes,  so  that  all  eggs  and  larvae  may  be  killed,  then  removed  and 
dried.  Nuts  thus  treated  will  not  get  flinty  hard  when  subsequently  dried  for 
winter  use.  Another  plan  is  to  put  the  nuts  in  cold  storage  as  soon  as  harvested, 
removing  them  only  as  required  for  market.  Those  which  are  to  be  planted  the 
following  year  should  be  treated  with  carbon  bi-sulphide  to  destroy  all  insect  life, 
and  then  layered  in  sand  during  the  winter. 

Uses. 

. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  extensive  use  of  chestnuts  in  many 
foreign  countries,  notably  France,  Spain,  Italy,  Korea  and  Japan.  In  all  of  these 
countries  the  chestnut  is  considered,  not  as  a  luxury,  but  as  a  staple  article  of  diet, 
to  be  prepared  and  used  as  such.  It  is  said  that  Paris  alone  consumes  twenty 
million  pounds  of  Marrons  (table  or  desert  chestnuts  annually,  while  the  consump- 
tion of  nuts  and  meal  in  France  as  a  whole  is  so  great  that,  despite  the  enormous 
production  within  her  own  territory,  several  million  dollars  worth  of  nuts  are 


IO8        SEVENTH    REPORT    OF    THE    FOREST,     FISH    AND    GAME    COMMISSION. 

imported  from  Italy  and  Turkey  yearly.  Nor  is  the  consumption  confined  to  the 
peasant  classes,  who  use  the  flour  almost  exclusively  for  bread ;  but  chestnuts 
roasted,  steamed,  purged,  as  a  dressing  for  meats,  and  as  vegetables,  are  served 
extensively  on  the  tables  of  the  rich. 

In  this  country  the  variety  of  food  stuffs  is  so  great,  and  their  production  so 
easy,  that  necessity  has  never  taught  us  the  value  of  nuts  as  food.  The  great  grain 
fields  of  the  West  are  looked  upon  as  the  one  legitimate  source  of  the  "  staff  of  life," 
yet  the  fact  remains  that  chestnut  flour  makes  an  equally  palatable  and  a  more 
nutritious  bread.  The  chestnut  when  raw  is  not  easy  to  digest ;  but  in  cooking  the 
starch  grains  are  broken  up,  making  them  readily  digestible.  Prejudice,  coupled 
with  ignorance  and  lack  of  appreciation  of  its  good  qualities,  are  the  factors  which 
to-day  retard  the  adoption  of  the  chestnut  as  one  of  our  staple  articles  of  diet. 

In  chemical  composition  and  relative  food  value,  the  chestnut  differs  widely 
from  other  nuts,  since  it  contains  a  large  percentage  of  the  carbohydrates,  especially 
starch,  and  less  proteine  matter  and  oils.  In  this  respect  it  quite  closely  resembles 
wheat  flour.  Since  the  carbohydrates  are  the  chief  source  of  the  energy  used  in 
maintaining  the  vital  processes  of  the  body,  it  follows  that  the  chestnut,  by  reason 
of  its  high  percentage  of  these  carbohydrates  and  the  comparatively  small  amount 
of  nitrogenous  matter,  is  a  better  balanced  and  more  nutritious  food  than  other 
nuts,  or  even  many  of  the  cereals. 

It  may  be  that  when  the  wheat  lands  become  less  productive  and  the  margin  of 
profit  lower  that  men  will  turn  to  the  idle,  untilled  woodlands  of  the  East  and  util- 
ize them  for  the  production  of  nuts  as  a  substitute  for  cereals.  A  change  in  our 
bread-making  material,  if  ever  made,  will  come  slowly,  since  public  taste  and  long- 
established  customs  are  slow  to  alter,  and  new  introductions  are  looked  upon  with 
distrust.  The  growing  realization  that  the  fine  white  bread  in  use  at  present  is  lack- 
ing in  nutriment,  and  is  injurious  to  the  digestive  organs,  and  the  general  crusade 
against  it  by  physicians  and  health  food  advocates,  will,  however,  rapidly  turn  public 
attention  to  new  cereals  or  substitutes  for  them. 

An  acre  of  land  will  grow  35  bushels  of  wheat  in  a  year  if  properly  cultivated. 
A  like  area  of  chestnut  trees  will  produce  many  times  as  many  bushels  of  equally 
nutritious  food  yearly  for  an  indefinite  period,  and  require  no  outlay  for  cultivation, 
replanting  or  fertilization.  More  than  this,  the  spring  frosts,  beating  rains  and  sum- 
mer droughts,  which  are  a  constant  menace  to  a  wheat  crop,  work  no  injury  upon 
the  chestnut  tree  or  its  fruit.  Why  then  is  wheat  grown  on  millions  of  acres,  while 
we  fail  to  produce  even  enough  chestnuts  to  supply  the  now  limited  demand,  and 
allow  Southern  Europe  to  exact  large  tribute  from  us  annually  for  the  nuts  we 


FROM    THIS    TREE   800   YOUNG    BURS   WERE    PICKED  ;    200   WERE    LEFT   ON   THE    TREE 

TO    MATURE. 


A   NORMAL   YIELD. 


CHESTNUT    CULTURE    IN    THE    NORTHEASTERN    UNITED    STATES.  109 

import  for  consumption  in  their  raw,  unwholesome  form.  With  the  exception  of 
the  occasional  Thanksgiving  turkey  stuffed  with  chestnut  dressing,  chestnuts  in 
their  many  appetizing  cooked  forms  seldom  appear  on  the  bill  of  fare  of  the  Ameri- 
can people ;  and  yet  housewives  are  constantly  complaining  of  the  lack  of  variety  in 
the  foods  obtainable.  Why  not  try  chestnuts?  Mrs.  Rorer  gives  several  excellent 

recipes  which  any  cook  can  follow  or  enlarge  upon  at  will.     If  given  a  fair  trial  the 

/     » 

chestnut  cannot  fail  to  commend  itself  for  general  table  use,  and  when  once  gener- 
ally introduced  new  uses  for  it  will  be  found,  and  its  permanent  place  among  our 
valuable  food  products  assured. 

Insects. 

Enemies  in  the  form  of  fire,  thieves,  or  wind  may  be  fought  and  controlled,  either 
wholly  or  in  part ;  but  when  we  consider  the  insect  pests  in  their  relation  to  chestnut 
culture,  a  more  serious  problem  presents  itself.  Insects  are  so  subtle  in  their  work- 
ings, so  mysterious  in  their  many  forms,  and  present  such  vast  numbers,  that  man 
with  his  limited  powers  must  stand  more  or  less  powerless  in  the  event  of  their 
extended  ravages. 

The  chestnut  as  a  tree  is  not  seriously  injured  in  either  leaves  or  trunk  by  any 
form  of  boring  or  defoliating  insect ;  but  unfortunately  the  nuts  furnish  a  breeding 
place  and  food  supply  to  a  very  destructive  larva  known  as  the  "chestnut  weevil." 
So  great  has  been  the  destruction  wrought  by  this  weevil  in  parts  of  the  country, 
especially  in  the  South,  and  on  the  more  susceptible  varieties,  that  many  growers 
have  ceased  the  commercial  propagation  of  the  nuts  because  of  the  annual  reduction 
of  profits  by  the  ravages  of  the  weevil.  It  must  be  admitted  that  the  tribute  of  one- 
half  to  three-fourths  of  the  crop,  which  weevils  sometimes  levy,  is  decidedly  dis- 
couraging; but  these  extreme  cases  are  usually  the  result  of  unwise  choice  of 
species,  or  an  unfavorable  location  of  the  grove  or  orchard.  Improved  varieties 
suffer  most  in  or  near  native  chestnut  forests.  Japanese  varieties  suffer  less  than 
European,  and  of  the  latter  the  Paragon  is  least  affected.  Insect  pests  on  apple, 
peach  and  other  fruit  trees  have  been  controlled,  and  it  seems  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  if  chestnut  culture  assumes  sufficient  proportions,  remedial  measures  will  be 
found  for  the  chestnut  weevil. 

At  present  the  danger  of  an  annual  diminution  of  profits  from  wormy  nuts  is  the 
one  drawback  to  extensive  culture  of  improved  chestnuts,  especially  on  cut-over 
chestnut  land.  The  control  of  this  pest  is  a  question  of  vital  interest  to  growers 
and  entomologists,  and  upon  its  proper  solution  depends,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
ultimate  success  of  chestnut  culture  on  waste  land.  With  the  Paragon  and  other 


IIO         SEVENTH    REPORT    OF    THE    FOREST,    FISH    AND    GAME    COMMISSION. 

varieties  which  are  least  susceptible,  the  margin  of  profit  left  after  the  worms 
destroy  a  considerable  portion  of  the  crop  is  sufficiently  high  to  induce  many  to 
invest  in  the  business,  even  when  possessed  of  the  certain  knowledge  of  this  annual 
loss.  If  this  damage  by  weevils  can  be  decreased  or  made  nil,  the  profits,  which 
even  now  are  high,  will  of  course  increase  in  like  proportion. 

The  whole  question  of  damage  by  weevils  is  at  present  something  of  a  lottery  at 
best,  since  not  only  orchards  and  groves  but  individual  trees  of  the  same  variety  are 
infested  in  widely  varying  degrees,  and  to  a  different  extent  each  season.  One 
plantation  may  be  seriously  injured  during  a  season,  while  another  a  few  miles  away 
remains  exempt ;  or  one  portion  may  be  affected  and  the  remainder  left  uninjured. 
The  same  is  true  of  individual  trees,  although  there  are  varieties,  as  the  Cooper, 
which  seems  a  special  prey  for  the  weevil  at  all  times  and  places. 

The  chestnut  weevil  is  of  the  beetle  family  of  insects,  and  is  one  of  the  several 
species  of  curculio  which  infest  nuts.  The  genus  Balaninus,  to  which  it  belongs, 
includes  seven  species,  all  of  which  are  nut  weevils ;  but  only  two,  viz.,  B,  carya- 
trypes  and  B.  rectus,  wonk  serious  injury  to  the  chestnut.  It  is  the  larval  form  of  the 
insect  which  works  within  the  chestnut  and  renders  it  unfit  for  use.  The  larva  or 
grub  is  footless,  white  or  cream  colored,  with  a  red  or  yellowish  head,  and  a  cylin- 
drical body  about  half  an  inch  long.  The  larvae  of  B.  rectus  are  of  smaller  size  than 
those  of  B.  caryatrypes.  The  adults  are  yellowish  in  color  with  rusty  lines  and 
spots  on  the  wing  covers,  and  are  characterized  by  their  extremely  long  and  slender 
snout  or  beak.  Their  powers  of  flight  are  rather  limited.  In  the  male  beetle  the 
beak  is  about  the  length  of  the  body  ;  in  the  female  it  is  twice  as  long  as  the  body. 
The  function  of  the  beak  is  to  pierce  the  immature  burs  and  nuts  and  prepare  a 
place  for  the  reception  of  the  eggs. 

The  life  history  of  the  insect,  briefly  stated,  is  as  follows :  The  winged  beetles 
appear  about  the  time,  or  soon  after,  the  trees  begin  to  bloom  ;  but  egg  laying  is 
delayed  until  the  staminate  catkins  drop,  and  the  young  burs  are  of  considerable 
size.  Then  with  their  long  beaks  the  beetles  pierce  a  hole  through  the  thick  bur 
and  into  the  tender  nut  itself  and  excavate  a  tiny  cavity,  in  which  the  female 
deposits  from  one  to  four  eggs.  The  tiny  wound  in  the  nut  soon  heals  over  com- 
pletely, thus  effectively  protecting  the  eggs  and  grubs  within.  Eggs  are  often  laid 
in  different  parts  of  the  same  nut;  hence  we  frequently  find  the  mature  nuts  har- 
boring several  grubs,  sometimes  as  high  as  fifteen  or  twenty.  As  soon  as  the  eggs 
are  laid  the  winged  beetles  die,  there  being  only  one  brood  each  season.  The  eggs 
hatch  in  a  few  days  and  the  larvae  live  and  work  within  the  growing  nuts,  reaching 
maturity  about  the  time,  or  a  little  after,  of  the  autumn  ripening  and  falling  of  the 


\ 


CHESTNUT    CULTURE    IN    THE    NORTHEASTERN    UNITED    STATES.  Ill 

nuts.  The  time  required  by  the  larvae  to  reach  maturity  is  not  fixed,  but  is  gov- 
erned by  the  time  of  ripening  of  the  nut,  which  acts  as  host.  In  different  varieties 
the  grubs  are  always  full  grown  when  the  nuts  mature,  even  though  the  varieties 
ripen  many  weeks  apart.  The  full  grown  larvae  bore  out  through  the  shell  and 
enter  the  ground  soon  after  the  nuts  fall,  where  they  change  into  a  pupa  state,  in 
which  condition  they  remain  dormant  all  winter.  In  the  spring,  after  another 
transformation,  they  emerge  in  the  adult  beetle  form,  thus  completing  their  cycle 
of  existence,  and  are  ready  to  perform  the  one  function  for  which  they  were  created, 
the  reproduction  of  the  species. 

The  full  control  of  this  weevil  pest  is  as  yet  an  unattained  result.  As  with 
many  other  pests  of  this  kind  preventive  measures,  rather  than  remedial  ones,  are 
most  effective.  The  one  plan  which  aims  to  reduce  the  injury  after  it  is  done,  is  the 
scalding  method  already  described  under  instructions  for  the  care  of  the  crop.  This 
method,  if  immediately  carried  into  effect  upon  the  maturing  of  the  nuts,  makes 
most  of  the  crop  available  for  market,  and  kills  all  insect  life  in  the  gathered  nuts, 
thus  reducing  the  number  which  would  prey  on  next  year's  crop,  and  saving  a 
second  resorting  of  the  nuts  before  marketing.  If  left  a  few  days  without  scalding, 
a  basket  of  nuts  often  shows  twice  as  many  wormy  ones  as  when  set  away,  since 
many  larvae  mature  and  leave  within  that  time.  The  holes  in  the  shells  are  always 
made  from  the  inside  by  emerging  larvae.  Sound  nuts  never  become  infested  when 
mixed  with  wormy  ones,  because  the  larvae  pass  the  pupa  state  and  winter  in  the 
ground,  not  in  the  nuts. 

The  preventive  measures  which  may  be  practiced  are  many  and  are  all  good, 
since  anything  which  reduces  the  number  of  insects  will  lessen  the  injury  done 
during  the  subsequent  year.  To  keep  large  flocks  of  guinea  hens,  turkeys  and  game 
chickens  foraging  among  the  trees  is  an  excellent  plan,  as  the  number  of  adult 
insects  and  larvae  they  will  destroy  is  enormous.  In  order  to  prevent  the  larvae 
from  escaping  into  the  ground  the  nuts  and  burs  should  be  gathered  the  moment 
they  are  ripe,  and  immediately  sorted  and  the  defective  ones  destroyed  ;  or,  if  left 
unsorted,  they  should  be  thrown  into  tight  bins  or  boxes  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
the  larvae.  Even  the  immature  burs  which  fall  early  should  be  gathered  and  burned, 
and  every  precaution  taken  to  destroy  all  existing  larvae.  The  Paragon  burs  which 
are  picked  and  dried  in  the  sun  should  be  burned  as  soon  as  the  nuts  are  extracted. 
It  has  been  suggested  that  the  curculio  be  shook  from  the  trees  into  sheets,  as  is 
done  with  the  plum  curculio ;  but  this  would  prove  practicable  only  where  the 
orchard  or  grove  is  small.  A  better  method  is  to  plant  throughout  the  plantation 
varieties,  like  the  Cooper,  which  are  especially  sought  by  the  weevil,  and  destroy  all 


112         SEVENTH    REPORT    OF    THE    FOREST,    FISH    AND    GAME    COMMISSION. 

burs  which  form  on  them.  Whenever  possible  the  orchard  should  be  located  some 
distance  from  native  chestnut  woods,  or,  if  a  grove,  all  the  trees  should  be  cut  off 
and  grafted.  Some  means  should  also  be  taken  to  trap  the  winged  beetles  during 
the  egg-laying  period.  As  far  as  known  no  attempts  have  been  made  to  spray  the 
young  burs  with  a  solution  which  would  kill  or  drive  away  the  adult  beetles.  It  is 
worthy  of  experiment.  The  various  treatments  just  enumerated  can  be  applied 
most  advantageously  in  the  chestnut  orchard.  The  chestnut  grove,  however,  if  kept 
clean  and  free  from  underbrush  also  responds  readily  to  treatments  which  help  to 
reduce  the  beetles. 

Tl)e  Coppice  Forest. 

To  those  not  sufficiently  interested,  or  not  so  situated  as  to  make  the  growing  of 
chestnut  trees  for  their  nuts  advisable,  there  still  remains  a  profitable  and  interesting 
field  of  operations  in  the  growing  of  the  native  tree  for  timber  or  fuel.  This  work 
may  be  loosely  conducted  or  made  intensive  as  desired. 

Two  systems  present  themselves.  The  one  easiest  of  control  and  offering  the 
quickest  returns  is  the  "  coppice  system."  Under  this  system  the  forest  is  cut  over 
clean  with  a  rotation  of  about  thirty  years,  the  time  depending  on  the  use  to  which 
the  timber  is  to  be  put.  From  the  stumps  thus  left  a  new  growth  of  sprouts  spring 
up  which  are  the  basis  of  the  new  crop.  The  cutting  should  be  done  in  the  fall  or 
winter,  when  the  vital  functions  of  the  tree  are  at  a  low  ebb  and  most  of  the  sap  is 
withdrawn  from  trunk  and  limbs.  The  stumps  should  be  cut  low  and  smooth.  The 
sprouts  which  result  from  this  system  of  forest  management  are  very  rapid  in 
growth,  and  will  furnish  poles,  posts  an  ^  cross-ties  in  twenty  to  thirty  years.  The 
forest  when  once  started  may  be  left  to  itself ;  but  it  can  be  greatly  improved  by 
making  thinnings  and  improvement  cuttings,  while  the  material  thus  removed  can 
be  utilized  for  fuel.  This  involves  the  removal  of  defective  and  crowded  trees,  and 
likewise  those  of  other  species  which  are  of  little  value,  or  are  around  the  more 
valuable  trees. 

The  other  system  which  may  be  recommended  is  that  of  "  coppice  with 
standards."  This  system  is  essentially  the  same  as  the  one  just  described,  except 
that  in  addition  to  the  sprouts  a  number  of  seedling  trees  are  left,  or,  if  needs  be, 
planted.  These  seedlings  are  not  to  be  cut  when  the  sprouts  mature,  but  are  left 
through  two  or  three  rotations  of  twenty  or  thirty  years,  so  that  they  may  attain  a 
size  suitable  for  lumber.  The  number  left  per  acre  may  vary  from  30  to  50. 


CHESTNUT    CULTURE    IN    THE    NORTHEASTERN    UNITED    STATES.  113 


Our  native  chestnut,  although  of  unsurpassed  flavor,  is  not  desirable  for  general 
culture  because  of  the  small  sized  nut,  irregular  and  non-prolific  bearing,  damage  by 
weevils,  and  long  time  required  to  come  into  fruit.  As  a  timber  tree  it  is  of  recog- 
nized value  and  responds  readily  to  several  systems  of  forest  management.  Many 
varieties  of  chestnuts  have  been  introduced  from  Europe  and  Japan,  but  of  the  large 
number  imported  but  few  have  been  found  which  are  suited  to  our  climate  or 
possess  commendable  characters.  Those  retained  are  a  valuable  acquisition,  and  in 
size,  productivity  and  rapidity  of  growth,  are  far  superior  to  our  native  chestnuts 
for  cultivated  plantations.  The  Paragon,  Numbo,  and  Ridgely  of  the  European, 
and  the  Alpha,  Reliance,  and  Parry  of  the  Japanese  varieties,  are  the  most  valuable. 

Two  general  systems  of  chestnut  culture  are  practiced,  designated  respectively 
as  the  "chestnut  orchard  "  and  the  "  chestnut  grove."  The  first  is  composed  of 
grafted  seedlings  set  in  orchard  rows  on  cleared,  usually  improved,  land.  It  offers 
advantages  of  location,  ease  of  cultural  control,  and  greater  freedom  from  insect 
pests;  but  in  general  it  is  too  expensive.  The  other  system  is  an  attempt  to  utilize 
waste  forest  land  for  the  production  of  nuts.  By  this  system  a  natural  forest,  in 
which  the  native  chestnut  is  the  predominant  tree,  is  cut  over,  and  the  following 
year  the  one-year-old  sprouts  which  spring  up  from  the  stumps  are  grafted  to 
improved  varieties.  The  Paragon  stands  first  in  general  favor.  In  this  system  of 
culture  the  whip  or  tongue  method  of  grafting  has  proved  most  successful.  Returns 
from  a  grafted  grove  are  early  and  the  income  large  if  no  detrimental  element  enters. 
Insects  and  fire  are  the  worst  enemies,  the  former  being  the  most  injurious  and  hard- 
est to  control. 

The  American  people  have  not  yet  learned  the  full  value  of  chestnuts  ;  but  it 
seems  probable  that  with  a  larger  supply  and  an  improved  quality  there  will  come  a 
better  appreciation  of  their  food  value,  and  a  greater  demand.  In  many  European 
countries  the  chestnut  has  long  been  recognized  as  a  cheap  and  nutritious  food,  and 
as  such  is  extensively  used.  Chestnut  culture  in  the  United  States  is  truly  in  its 
infancy  as  yet  ;  but  interest  is  rapidly  being  awakened,  and  in  the  near  future  a 
rapid  advancement  of  the  industry  may  be  expected.  If  followed  for  pleasure,  few 
branches  of  arboriculture  possess  greater  fascination  or  offer  a  broader  field  for 
experimental  work.  If  conducted  as  a  business  enterprise  for  profit  only,  there  is 
offered  a  reasonably  safe  investment  with  quicker  and  higher  returns  than  are  assured 
by  any  system  of  forest  management,  while  but  few  branches  of  horticulture  are 
equally  profitable. 


114         SEVENTH    REPORT    OF    THE    FOREST,    FISH    AND    GAME    COMMISSION. 

In  conclusion  full  credit  must  be  accorded  to  the  several  men  who  aided  the 
writer  so  materially  in  his  investigations  of  the  latest  methods  of  chestnut  culture, 
and  without  whose  assistance  the  data  and  photographs  herewith  presented  could 
not  have  been  obtained.  To  Mr.  Coleman  K.  Sober,  Lewisburg,  Pa.,  and  Mr.  Sam- 
uel C.  Moon,  Mooresville,  Pa.,  especial  thanks  are  due  for  their  hospitality  and  valu- 
able information  regarding  methods  of  grafting  and  general  care  of  chestnut  groves 
and  orchards.  From  Prof.  Nelson  F.  Davis,  Bucknell  University,  many  timely  notes 
have  been  received,  and  by  him  many  of  the  accompanying  illustrations  have  been 
obtained  and  contributed.  To  nurserymen  and  horticulturists  generally,  who  ver- 
bally and  by  correspondence  have  contributed  to  this  article,  the  thanks  of  both  thie 
Commission  and  the  writer  are  extended. 


JBSSOT    COL.,    NO.  290, 

CHESTNUT  (CASTANEA  VULGARIS). 


Makers 

Syracuse,  N.  Y. 
PAT.  JAN.  21, 1908 


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